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Writing Guide for Political Science |
Types of
Writing Assignments
A summary is a short piece of writing in
which the author recapitulates somebody else’s writing. The task is to condense the writing and to
summarize its meaning, while leaving out extraneous parts of the discussion.
Purpose: Being
able to write a good summary is a basic skill.
Providing a summary often is laying the groundwork for a more involved
analysis.
How to Write It: The
following list is a series of activities suggested toward producing a good
summary. As you practice you will
develop your own technique.
·
Read the text; determine the overall
structure of the text; identify what the main purpose/argument of the text is.
·
Go through the text, marking individual
passages (paragraphing of the text generally provides clues to passages).
·
Summarize each passage in one sentence;
mark significant details of each passage.
·
Combine the one sentence summaries and
the important parts of passages; this is the first draft of your summary.
·
Check through your summary; throw out
repetitions, unnecessary details, complicated wordings - streamline.
·
Check the summary against the original
text - does it accurately represent the main ideas and arguments?
·
Revise your summary; check for style,
grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
Evaluation Criteria:
A good summary:
1.
Presents the argument of the original
text in a clear and short manner.
2.
Leaves out extraneous materials.
A special kind of summary is an
abstract. An abstract is a short summary of an article or a book which serves
as a preview of the text. In journals
an abstract is often provided before an article and enables the reader to get
an understanding of the main argument of the text to follow.
A book report is a
detailed summary of a book. Make sure
to not confuse a book report, a task which requires you to summarize what the
author was saying, with a book review, in which you are required to critically
analyze the book you are reviewing.
A reaction note is very brief, sometimes
less than one page. The assignment asks
you for a description and analysis of an event (lecture, seminar, symposium),
video tape, professional meeting, panel, or reading assignment.
Purpose: To call upon students
to summarize the main themes of the event, material, or other; to go beyond
description to analysis of that material.
How to Write It: Include a
brief summary of what you have heard, seen or read. Then you should interpret it in the context of other experiences
or learning you have had. Add value to
the note based on your personal experience concerning the topic or related
topics. Be more interpretative and
analytical.
It might be helpful to think of the
order of your tasks in the following way:
1. Summary.
2. Analysis based on
prior learning.
3. Analysis based on
personal experience.
You are encouraged to use your own
experience but remember that you need to support what you say with broader
evidence. In other words, your
experience can help illustrate and “bring alive” points you have to make, but
you should not assume your experience is shared by everyone. You need to explain how your experience bears
on the topic at hand. If you do this,
bringing into consideration your own experience or observations will almost
always strengthen the writing, as long as it is related to the topic at hand.
Evaluation Criteria:
1.
Clarity in the summary.
2.
Evidence of synthesis with other
learning.
3.
Evidence of synthesis with either
personal experience or observation.
4.
Well organized, clear, concise writing.
OPB – SEVEN DAYS
The show, hosted by Stephane Fowler and
presented by Oregon Public Broadcasting, Seven Days, featured a panel of
experts to discuss the new direction that the US Forest Service was taking and
physicial assisted suicide. The panel
consisted of four men, Lance Robertson, a reporter for the Eugene Register Guard, Dan Spats, from the Dalles Chronicle, Hasso Hering, from the Albany Democrat Herald, and the highly regarded political analyst
from OPB, Mr. Bill Lunch. For the
purposes of this class I will only react to the discussion on the US Forest
Service changes.
Mike
Dombeck, the head of the US Forest Service, recently announced his intentions
to focus on conservation over logging and watershed protection over resource
extraction. As a result, several
Senators, interested in their constituents’ votes, got together and threatened
deep cuts in funding if logging was cut to the intended levels, approximately
80% of the current rates.
Bill
Lunch made an important comment in distinguishing between conservation and
preservation. He gave some historical
background on this distinction as well.
Bill proceeded to inform the panel on some of the historical background
of how the boundaries of some of the national forests were created as well as
the rumored presidential drinking habits of that day, although that issue is
clearly not justicable today.
In
closing, it is clear that due to the various senators’ threats that Mike
Dombeck will have a tough battle ahead of him as well as some very important
decisions to make. He must take into
consideration the mission of the Forest Service, the budget cuts that may
result, the “health” of the federal lands that the Forest Service manages, and
the demand for the resources that he wants to cut back on harvesting. I wouldn’t want to be in his shoes, but I do
admire his courage to even state his intentions in the first place.
RACHEL
CARSON
Rachel Carson changed
America and how we think about the environment. Carson fought against the over use of pesticides, especially
DDT. In her crusade, she brought
awareness to the American public about environmental issues. She forced people to think about the
environment in a new way. Carson was
revolutionary because she changed peoples thoughts about nature and how we need
to work with it. She also encouraged
the government to take responsibility for their actions.
Before Carson,
environmental issues were not as highly publicized. Technological advancements brought Carson into the homes of
average citizens. The television
allowed for people to be informed on issues that they really did not know
existed or that affected their daily life.
Citizens were able to learn that the government was doing harmful things
to them and the environment.
America had the view point
of using nature for economic benefits.
Carson brought in a new perspective.
John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club, advanced the idea of
preservation himself. He would have
been pleased with the work of Carson informing the public.
Carson was a feminist
before her time. She fought against
government agencies and the establishment.
Carson through her book and speaking out against pesticides broke
through barriers for women, as biologists and writers. Rachel Carson not only brought
environmentalism to the forefront, she also brought women into a new
perspective.
Thinkpieces are essays which give you an
opportunity to reflect, consider, ponder - that is, think about - ideas presented
in class or in readings. Thinkpieces
are not designed to be research papers; you draw from the readings assigned for
the class and develop your interpretation.
Thinkpieces are generally about 1,500 words, that is about five
typescript pages.
Purpose: A thinkpiece is
designed to invite you to actively converse with the readings of the class and
to develop your own interpretation and perspective of the materials and issues.
How to Write It: In order
to write a good thinkpiece you need to read through the assigned reading;
consider the questions, issues, and information discussed in class; and present
your interpretation of the reading.
In preparation to writing the thinkpiece
you are encouraged to discuss your ideas with others. The writing, of course, is done on your own.
Think about your ideas, then illustrate
your points with examples from your experience and/or other works or
sources. Thinkpieces are almost always
enriched with your own experience when it is related to the topic you are addressing.
Evaluation Criteria:
A good thinkpiece:
1.
Demonstrates a clear understanding of
the text/question/issue it pertains to.
2.
Is clearly structured.
3.
Demonstrates the author’s own thinking
on the topic related to one’s own experience.
Fire at Eden’s Gate
Tom McCall & The Oregon Story
Through this legislative
session, I have been working with Rep. Mark Simmons from Elgin, OR. Brent Walth’s book about former Governor Tom
McCall was especially pertinent to many of the things that I have been working
on in my internship. Rep. Simmons being
from Eastern Oregon, realized the strong need for agricultural friendly
legislation, much as McCall did in his day.
I have been assigned several committee’s to cover while at the legislature, one of which is Environment
and Evergy, wherein I have seen several things that can be directly traced back
to McCall’s influence.
Having read the selection
of Walth’s book that directly relate to agriculture and having an agricultural
background myself (my minor is in Agricultural Science and I grew up on a
cattle ranch), I began to see many of the effects that Gov. McCall had on the
future of the state of Oregon.
While I know many of the
things that McCall did were very good, I think that without a doubt the most
important was the effect he had on environmental protection in the state of
Oregon. While it is important to note
that most of the District 58 (Northeast Oregon) for whom I am presently employed
is among the cleanest and environmental friendly area in the state, I am from
the west wide and a stones throw from the Willamette River. I have seen the pictures and heard the
stories about the problems with pollution that the Willamette had, and I know
that it was in large part due to McCall that environmental regulation on that
river came to be. I am extremely
thankful for the quality that the river now has, but even that is not
sufficient.
Several bills and
initiatives were enacted this session that relate directly to environmental
changes needed in our state. While
McCall is no longer around, I’m pretty sure that he should receive at least
partial credit for the Salmon Restoration Plan that Governor Kitzhaber, Speaker
Lundquist, and Senate President Brady Adams helped put into action. Walth documents McCall’s “unprecedented”
environmental programs. Well, those
same programs that were then unprecedented, are now needed to help protect
Oregon’s industries. My belief is that
if it hadn’t been for the long history of environmental protection in Oregon by
people like Gov. McCall, the Environmental Protection Agency would have listed
the salmon on the endangered species list.
I realize that the threat
by the EPA was due in large part to them wanting Oregon to fork out more money
to save the coastal salmon. But the
members of the Oregon legislature realized that it was in the best interest of
Oregon industry to handle the problem themselves and try to keep the EPA’s
involvement to a minimum. In this same
manner McCall set into motion plans that required environmental change of those
in this state. He knew that it would be
the best thing for all Oregonians.
The next major topic I
have seen in this years legislature and in Walth’s book is that of the sign “Welcome
to Oregon. We Hope You Enjoy Your
Visit.” This mentality first
established by McCall was quickly pushed aside by people like Vic Atiyeh. I understand where each side was coming
from, but on a personal level I agree with McCall. It would be better for Oregon in many ways to try to stop the
influx of new residents moving into our state.
Land prices are going through the roof and urban growth boundaries are
swallowing up the rich soil of the Willamette Valley. Many industries are sprouting up throughout Oregon which is good,
but many of these same industries are going to cause problems, both socially
and environmentally.
During this session I have
really seen a great deal by Rep. Simmons that leads me to believe he agrees
with McCall also. Eastern Oregon is
really the next logical step for the increase in population that is coming into
the state. Rep. Simmons would never say
that he doesn’t want people to move into his district. But some of the comments he has made about
people moving into the area and the problems with some of the new business’s
over there are very pointed toward his dislike of the newcomers. To be honest, McCall had little effect on
stopping the “migration” of people to Oregon during his tenure, just as the
current legislators can really do very little to stop it today.
Governor Tom McCall was an
influential man, who had strong beliefs and a dedication to Oregon. Politicians like him are very rare and hard
to find in today’s political arena.
Much of the problem with legislators today is that they are afraid to
stick their necks out on the line.
McCall really did not have this problem. Probably it was easier for him because the press loved him. From my experience in the legislature, very
few legislators know how to effectively use the press to their advantage. Most of the elected officials are extremely
wary of the press and, in large part, rightly so. A majority of the articles written about the session are
negative, and that causes a serious problem for legislators. To be popular you need to get your name in
print, but you don’t want it in print over something negative. In this lies the double-edged sword.
McCall seemed to have a way of almost
manipulating the press to be on his side.
From my experience, Kitzhaber has a very similar way about him. The current governor knows that to be
effective, he has to get his name out in front of people as much as
possible. Kitzhaber very rarely gets
bad press because he knows how to handle situations.
Former Governor Tom McCall
was an extremely interesting man, and while I don’t always agree with the
positions he took on matters, his professionalism and political savvy are
commendable. In today’s legislature we
need more people who have an opinion, a drive to get things done, and the
conviction to support their ideas.
Radio
Script
A radio script is a text written with
the intention of presenting it in spoken form.
It needs to present the information in a way that will make it possible
for the listener to identify and retain the important aspects of the piece.
Purpose: A radio script
provides the students with an opportunity to learn how to communicate complex
materials in relatively little time. It
is not an easy task and requires considerable discipline and a rather different
approach than writing a traditional paper.
How to Write It: Generally,
the preparation for a radio script is done in group work. For example, a group is working on
initiatives on the ballot and prepare to inform others in the class about the
measure, its sponsors and its opponents, the pros, the cons, and the
analysis. Pro and con are fairly
obvious, but analysis may not be. It
means that the reporting group provide some background or a way of
understanding the measure that will help listeners better understand the
positions taken by each side.
Remember that you will need to go
through several drafts of your radio script.
Write for broadcast; that means, at a minimum, reading your script aloud
before it is delivered to hear how it sounds.
It is usually better to write in relatively short sentences than long
ones for this purpose.
Evaluation Criteria:
A good radio script:
1.
Presents the information in a short,
precise manner.
2.
Provides enough background information
for listeners to be able to understand the different positions concerning the
issue.
3.
Should sound good.
A briefing note will provide information
in a condensed form about an issue that the writer has researched. It serves as a learning aid for students not
involved in a discussion of this particular topic.
Purpose: Students learn one
issue in depth and in the briefing note share that knowledge with others. In turn they will review briefing notes from
other students. This is a stepping stone
towards the interaction in a seminar in which students contribute knowledge to
the common pool as well as draw knowledge from the common pool.
How to
Write It: Students should put themselves in the position
of an expert whose task it is to inform an uninformed reader. It is important to learn enough to be
conversant with the broad contours of the topic. Your reader should be able to acquire a basic understanding of the major issues. You need to be clear and concise.
A briefing note can contain the
following elements:
·
Background information: In this section you are framing
the issue; you ‘set the stage’ for the
materials to follow, outline the history of the issue addressed (“how we got to
where we are”), and potential controversies and other background information
that might prove helpful to understanding the current issue and theoretical
aspects of the topic.
·
Participants: This section identifies and
describes the participants in the issue; the political groups, agencies,
legislative players, legislative committees, interests, ‘influential others’,
scientists, etc. involved in the issue.
Make sure to identify coalition building and other connective points and
differences between the participants.
·
Analysis/Interpretation: This section should draw
together the material gathered in the prior sections, should present an overview of the controversy and provide an
analysis. This means that you need to
explore the dynamics that are at work beneath the surface of the issue. That is, why are the various
participants - either individuals or organizations - involved? Why do they care
about it? What are the dominant
motives? Given the range of issues in which groups and individuals might be
involved, why does one have sufficient priority to come up to the surface? What are the most important comparisons to
other contemporary issues? What can we
reasonably predict about this controversy, if anything? - Note that the word why
keeps reappearing!
Evaluation Criteria:
A good briefing note is written concise
and clearly so that a previously uninformed reader can tell somebody else about
the basic issue, players, positions, and what’s going on beneath the surface.
Briefing
Note Example
Coastal Coho Salmon Recovery and the Oregon
Plan
Due to various direct and
indirect factors, Pacific Northwest salmon runs have been declining since the
late 1800’s. Practices including the
harvesting of old growth forests near streams, overfishing by recreational and
commercial industries, pollution from agricultural communities, and the
building of dams for hydroelectric power have crippled salmon populations and
degraded the ecosystems which once supported them. Many of these runs, including Oregon Coho, can now be defined as “threatened”
or “endangered”, warranting the protections of the Endangered Species Act
(ESA). This act placed responsibility
for the recovery of Coho in the hands of the federal government; thereby
disengaging State resource managers and community organizations from recovery
efforts and reducing local incentive to protect the species.
In October of 1995, Oregon
Governor Kitzhaber responded to the possibility of an ESA listing of Northern
Oregon Coastal Coho by initiating the Oregon Coastal Salmon Restoration
Initiative (OCSRI), or the Oregon Plan.
With an immediate goal of restoring coastal Coho runs, and an ultimate
goal of restoring the natural health of Oregon’s aquatic systems, the Plan
emphasizes voluntary participation and cooperation among State agencies. The Plan relies on four basic
components: (1) community based action;
(2) government coordination; (3) monitoring and accountability; and (4)
improvement over time.
Key agency players in this
effort include the Forest Service, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife,
Bonneville Power Administration, and the Army Corps of Engineers. Additionally, the Plan depends on the joint
cooperation of private landowners, coastal residents, irrigators, community
conservation groups, and Tribal Councils.
This is an unprecedented, collective effort of federal, state, Tribal,
and local governments to recover an imperiled species of great importance to
all participants.
Economic activities of the State,
including fishing, logging, agriculture, road building, hatchery operations,
and mining will likely be affected by restoration efforts. By retaining control of Coho recovery
through the Oregon Plan, the State intends to minimize economic impacts to
these industries, especially in the coastal region.
Efforts to improve salmon
habitat have been underway for decades, and are supported by the Oregon Plan as
important recovery measures.
Restoration of streams and watersheds through the use of artificial
structures, planting trees in reparian buffer zones, replacing natural wood
debris in rivers, rebuilding logging roads, and reintroducing key native
species such as the beaver, will help restore habitat conditions essential to
salmon runs. Additional steps in
redefining hatchery programs to use basin-specific wild brood stock, and
improving public education to inform communities of the life history and
habitat requirements of salmon will strengthen and increase overall success of
the Plan.
The Oregon Plan presents a
comprehensive approach to recovery of coastal Coho; its capabilities, relative
to federal regulation through the ESA, will soon be revealed. Many Oregonians hope to see recovery of the
species as proof of the effectiveness of state-led, local recovery efforts.
Sources: Gregory, S. Oregon State University, Dept. of Fish and
Wildlife. Peer Review 1996, CSRI:
OSU. <http://www.oregon-plan.org/OSU.html>. US Bureau of Records. Endangered
Species Act of 1973.
<http://www.usbr.gov/laws/esa.html>. State of OR, Governor’s Homepage,
<http://www.governor.state.or.us/governor/press. The Oregon Plan, Executive Summary,
<http://www.oregon-plan.org/execsumm/execsumm.html>.
Journal
In some classes you might be required to
keep a journal for the duration of the class.
A journal is an intellectual conversation. It is not a diary in which you record what happened. It is a forum for you to think through your
interaction with a text, ideas, issues, or events.
Purpose: The purpose of a
journal is to:
·
Try out new ideas.
·
Raise questions (that might or might not
be answerable).
·
Discover contexts and connections with
other class and life experiences.
Among the connections to make are your
feelings and ideas. It’s okay to record
feelings - but it’s not enough.
How to Write It: Ask
yourself: “What do I think about
this? How do I feel about this?” Start with your heart, then add your
mind. Listen to your own internal
voices, then get outside yourself and immerse yourself in the material. Be
responsible to yourself and to your material. Keep your journal current
and keep it over time. This is not meant to be a ‘jam and cram’ assignment but
rather an opportunity to ‘digest’ the materials and issues from the class,
events, or other experiences.
Your journal should show some
development of themes and patterns of thought. It should give a sense of
progress for the duration of the term.
Evaluation Criteria: A good
journal should be grounds for a positive answer to the following questions:
1. How responsible
is the writer to the material?
2. How
willing is the writer to take risks?
3. How
engaged is the author with the material?
4.
How conscientious is the writer in
making entries?
5.
It is important that you keep current on
your journal.
January 16, 1998
This day was a very
pleasant one in which I made a discovery.
I discovered that one of the people that works upstairs is currently one
of the advent guards of the “deregulation of utilities” policy making
machine. His name is Joshua and he is a
lawyer who has been with the Senator since the beginning of his term. We sat and discussed many of the options and
issues that face Oregon, and the rest of the U.S., with the deregulation of
public utilities. What even amazed me
more is that he, after talking with me for some time, asked me to come upstairs
and discuss this matter in more length while he took notes on how deregulation
would impact the rural farm industry.
At one point I felt very informative, but later I felt that this
information could have been gained some time ago by many other people who are
more acutely aware than I am of the ramifications. In the afternoon, the office spent the majority of its time
re-organizing things and restocking items.
Basically, the office is feeling the tensions rise for the beginning of
session.
Through the hall I saw the
Senator constantly go over to the media office to see how he came across in
publicity/media coverage with the briefing of the investigations findings of
the C-130 incident. Media was very
present the day of the brief, with personnel coming from Oregon to capture the
affair.
Description: This
assignment requires you to assess critically media coverage of political issues
and the “image” of politically-important people and topics presented by media.
Purpose: The purpose of an
image analysis is:
·
To encourage you to read or watch media
in a critical manner.
·
To learn to separate image production
from political reporting.
·
Practice your analytical skills.
·
Learn to “read” visuals with a critical
eye.
How to Write It: You will
need to:
·
Choose a political issue, policy, or
politician.
·
Choose a period of time to analyze.
·
Locate copies of at least two newspapers
for that period, at least one newsmagazine and possibly other media.
·
Look carefully at visuals (photos,
cartoons) because they especially affect image perception.
·
Be alert for headlines and words that
carry value judgments or stereotypes.
·
Distinguish and label different types of
news coverage (news reports, news analyses, columns, editorials, letters to the
editor…).
·
Aim:
to identify the main elements of the image(s) of the political objects
you examined; to judge similarities and differences in image presentation; and
to examine if there was a consensus image or multiple images about them at the
time you analyzed.
Your paper should include the following:
This assignment can be done using
national US media or international media as an analysis of how non US media
cover the US Political System and official images.
Evaluation Criteria:
A good image analysis:
·
Is clearly written and responds to each
part of the requirement.
·
Identifies the author’s biases.
·
Systematically examines all relevant examples
in the media chosen during the time period being examined.
·
Critically and carefully describes the “image”
portrayed by various examples.
·
Provides conclusions that are well
documented, with clear reference to attached “news” items.
·
Clearly labels the “news” items used in
the analysis.
Agency
Analysis
Description: The
intent of this assignment is to systematically examine an agency and its
politics.
Purpose: By doing an agency
analysis you will learn to:
·
Familiarize yourself with the workings
of a governmental agency by using official publications and other sources.
·
Prepare information about a governmental
agency for ‘outsiders’ from the agency.
How to Write It: After you
select a national governmental bureaucratic organization, use the following
materials to examine it:
·
US Government Manual.
·
US Government Budget.
·
Sources you can find on the World Wide
Web (most agencies have websites).
·
Other relevant sources.
Your paper should include the following:
·
The name of the agency you have chosen
to study and why you selected it.
·
Description of the agency and its place
within the government.
·
Description of its main functions/tasks,
identifying its main policy type or types (distributive, protective regulatory,
etc.), as discussed in class.
·
Summary of the agency’s recent budget
outlay history and personnel history, preferably at 5- or 10-year increments
starting in the 1960’s or earlier, in order to show trends (see Budget of the US Government Appendix
at OSU Library and www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/budget98) (You will also find relevant links through
the Political Science Department webpage.)
Note: Personnel means total number of people employed, not just a list of
agency leaders. Note also that the most
recent spending and revenue data in a budget are for two years prior to the
title year, so the 1999 Budget contains final budget numbers for 1997 (the 1999
budget is prepared in early 1998, soon after the 1997 budget year has ended).
·
Description of the main media image or
stereotype of that agency and its leaders, based on analyzing news accounts
about the agency. Note: Start this part early and do not limit
yourself to materials available on the web.
A helpful source is the New York
Times Index, available in most libraries.
·
“Educated guesses” about the politics of
that agency – that is, visibility, conflict, support by subgovernment, if any,
and so on – drawing on the type of policy involved (distributive, etc.) and
possibly on news accounts about that agency.
·
A complete list of sources used in
preparing the agency analysis, using standard citation methods (author, title,
publisher, year). Analysis (in the body
of the analysis be careful to identify sources used for each section).
Evaluation Criteria: A good agency analysis:
·
Is clearly written and responds to each
part of the requirement.
·
Carefully states reasons for the choice
and describes the organization carefully.
·
Fully responds to each requirement and
identifies sources used in each.
·
Critically and carefully describes the “image”
of the agency and its leaders as portrayed by media.
·
Provides conclusions that are well
documented.
·
Provides a complete bibliography at the
end, with identification in each section of reference material used.
Book Review
In our discipline book reviews are an
important form of writing and you will find book reviews published in all the
major Political Science journals.
A book review is not a book
report. While a book report is a
retelling of the book, a book review is much more than that. Books are written to make an argument. A book review is an effort to draw out, to
dissect, and to come to an
understanding of the author’s argument by critically examining the work. It is important that the reviewer not be
uncritically captivated by the book under review. Being ‘critical’ does not mean being negative. Rather, it entails an assessment of the work
while providing the reasons for the assessment.
Purpose: Book reviews allow
the interested reader to find out what the current new publications in the
field are. They discuss the author’s
perspectives and compare them with other perspectives. Book reviews can help the interested reader
to decide whether it is worth the time to read a book.
How to Write It: A good
book review will address important sets of questions:
1)
·
What does the book identify as issues and problems?
·
What point of view is the author bringing to his/her
topic?
·
What does the author’s frame of reference
emphasize; what does it tend to exclude?
·
Of what is the author trying to convince the reader?
2)
·
On the basis of what normative and empirical
premises is the author working?
·
Are there hidden assumptions or premises at work in
the book under review?
·
What sorts of research and analytical methods are
employed?
·
What sorts of evidence is used to illustrate and
defend arguments?
·
What are the findings, conclusions, solutions
presented by the author? Are
they justified?
3) Questions to reach for:
·
What are the intellectual and/or political implications
of the work under review?
·
What is the book’s contribution to the field?
·
What is your judgment on the book’s utility? - Did you
learn something from the book, what did you lean?
To what audience does the book speak, and with
what success? Would you recommend
the book to
somebody else?
This catalog of questions can be equally
useful when you are required to write a review of any kind, be it of an
article, a series of articles, or a series of books related to a topic. Make
sure to clarify with your teacher what the expected size of the review is.
Writing in Stages:
If it is not already a requirement of
the assignment, it is recommended that you work on a review in stages, which will
give you time to really think through the process and improve continually on
your understanding of the book, your discussion and evaluation of it.
Recommended stages are:
·
A summary of the major conceptual
framework, arguments, and conclusions of the book.
·
A detailed outline of your book review
which addresses the questions listed above.
·
A rough draft of your review.
·
A polished draft of the review in which
you reworked style as well as substance.
Evaluation Criteria:
A good book review:
1. Discusses
all or most of the questions raised above.
2.
Demonstrates a good understanding of the contents of the book under review.
3.
Expresses a good grasp of the book’s place in the wider discipline.
Essay
An
essay is “a literary composition, analytical or interpretive, dealing with its
subject from a more or less limited or personal standpoint.”
Websters Dictionary
Purpose: The purpose of an essay generally is to
give an explanation or to make an argument about a specific issue or theory, or
an author that you have read.
How to Write It:
a) Explanation: A
good explanation will have a thesis that is clearly stated and prominently
placed. The intention is that readers
can identify the main explanatory statement easily and distinguish it from the
contributing statements that make the
main statement believable.
You can explain something by the
following:
·
Analysis.
·
Showing causes or effects.
·
Compare and contrast.
b) Argument: You
should give reasons, make inductions, draw conclusions by discussing an issue
or idea from different perspectives in order to come to a well supported
judgment on the question. In order to
pursue this you will have to identify the sub-issues it includes and the merits
of two or more opposing positions. You
will be dealing with cause and effect reasoning which will require you to weigh
the supposed effects.
Presenting an argument is about taking a stand and about persuading readers
to share one’s attitude toward an issue.
Therefore it is important to use supporting evidence. A good argument will treat the other side
with respect and show regard for the legitimate objections to one’s own side.
Evaluation
Criteria:
In
a good essay:
·
The thesis or central idea is
prominently stated, carefully limited in scope, and plausible.
·
The strongest objections are addressed and
answered, either by refutation (proving a statement untrue) or by concession
(granting the truth of a statement without agreeing to its supposed
importance).
·
The evidence, or body of supporting
statements, is strong.
·
The tone is controlled. The essay may be impassioned, but it makes
its point without coercive appeals to emotionalism.
Essay Type
Exams
Unless
you are taking a multiple choice exam, your exam will involve some type of
writing, e.g., short answer essay, in class essay, take-home essay, identification
of terms.
Purpose: All exams ask
students to demonstrate mastery of course and other materials, readings,
lectures and discussions.
Short-answer
questions require less detail and development.
In-class essay exams require somewhat more definition and development.
Take-home essays require detailed, fully developed and referenced essays. (See
also section on essays above.)
How to Write It:
1. Start
preparing for all exams the first day of class.
2. Attend
class consistently.
3. Take
good notes.
4. Exam
preparation involves a process of understanding the framework of the course,
the course material, and major themes.
5. If you
are cramming for an exam the night before, you failed the process.
6. Review
your notes on an ongoing basis.
7. Compare
your notes with fellow classmates.
8. For all
in class exams get a good night’s sleep beforehand.
9. Read
the questions and topics carefully - make sure you understand what you are
being asked to do, e.g. describe, analyze, list. (See pages 12-14.)
10. Answer the question you have
been asked, not the question you think you’ve been asked.
11. If you are not certain,
clarify the question with your instructor.
12. For in class exams:
·
Read the whole exam through before you
start answering questions – budget your time.
·
Turn the pages over – are there
questions you might have missed?
·
Leave yourself enough time to review
your answers.
·
Read the instructions carefully; e.g., “answer
two out of three questions.”
·
For in class essays: take the time to outline your answer.
·
When budgeting your time pay attention
to the point value of questions.
13. For take home essays:
·
Read the question(s) carefully; exams
are likely to focus on main points of materials, issues, and themes dealt with
in class.
·
Plan time for a revision process – take
your essay to the writing center.
Evaluation Criteria:
For
short answer questions:
·
Does the response answer the question?
·
Does the answer address the major points?
For essay exams:
·
Is the essay well structured?
·
Does the essay develop the answer?
·
Is the essay well evidenced?
·
Is the essay carefully and thoughtfully written?
·
Does the essay address all the issues raised in the topic?
Analytical case briefs are in depth examinations and evaluations of
Supreme Court work products.
Purpose:
·
To hone and assess reading skills.
·
To hone and assess writing skills.
·
To hone and assess analytical skills.
·
To hone and assess critical thinking skills.
·
To hone and assess argumentation and reasoning skills.
·
To engage in drafting, revising, and polishing process.
·
To encourage Internet research skills.
·
To enhance common course readings in
American
Constitutional Law.
How to Write It: Step-by-step Model for Analytical Case
Briefs
Preliminaries: Your briefs must
contain ALL of the elements listed below that are pertinent to your particular
case, IN THE ORDER IN WHICH THEY ARE LISTED.
(Case briefs typically average between 7 and 10 typescript pages.) If you use the Supreme Court Reporter in hard copy form, you must attach a
photocopy of the case your are briefing.
Turning in a brief without a photocopy will cause forfeiture of the
grade (i.e., a 0) for that assignment.
1. Title and citation
for the case.
2. Votes of ALL
the Justices:
+ = Justice voted with the majority (or
concurred).
- = Justice dissented.
+/- = Justice concurred in part/dissented in part.
NP = Justice did not
participate in case.
3. Name of the
Justice who wrote the opinion of the Court.
4. Facts of the case
= What circumstances resulted in legal
action?
5. *Constitutional
question[s] to be decided = What is/are
constitutional problem[s] and issue[s]?
6. *Holding[s] of the
Court = How do Justices resolve
constitutional problem[s] and issue[s]? What legal rule[s]
result[s]?
7. *Opinion of the
Court = How do Justices explain and justify
their holding[s]?
8. Concurring
opinion[s] (if any).
9. Dissenting opinion[s]
(if any).
10. *Your own evaluation of the
opinion of the Court based upon
ALL SIX
of these criteria:
A. Are the arguments and
reasons in the opinion coherent
and consistent?
B. Does the opinion meet or
avoid all relevant issues?
C. Does the opinion follow
earlier precedents; if not, does
it diverge justifiably?
D. Does the opinion explain
convincingly why the Justices
decided the way they did?
E. Are there hidden
assumptions and premises in the
opinion?
F. Does the opinion
further what you consider "important”
political values and interests?
*
This analysis constitutes the heart of your brief. You should devote the
most time and space to these items.
Evaluation Criteria:
·
Organization.
·
Clarity of expression.
·
Thoughtfulness.
·
Completeness.
·
Responsiveness to above model.
·
Analytical rigor.
·
Level of critical thinking.
PALKO V. CONNECTICUT, 302 U.S. 319 (1937)
Chief Justice Hughes + Justice
Cardozo +
Justice McReynolds + Justice
Stone +
Justice Sutherland + Justice
Roberts +
Justice Van Devanter + Justice
Butler -
Justice Brandeis +
Mr. Justice Cardozo wrote the opinion of the Court.
FACTS: Palko was indicated for
first degree murder in Fairfield County, Connecticut. At trial, the jury found him guilty of second degree murder and
imposed a sentence of life imprisonment.
Connecticut, with the permission of the judge presiding at the trial,
appealed the decision to the state Supreme Court of Errors on the authority of
a 1886 state act which is stated in section 6494 of the General Statues as
follows:
“Sec. 6494. Appeals by the state in criminal cases. Appeals from the
rulings and decisions of
the superior court or of any criminal court
of common pleas, upon all
questions of law arising on the trial of
criminal cases, may be
taken by the state, with permission of the
presiding Judge, to the
Supreme Court of Errors, in the same manner and
to the same effect as if
made by the accused . . . (Palko v.
Connecticut,
58 S. Ct. 149 at 150).”
The Supreme Court of
Errors “. . . found that there had been
error of law to the prejudice of the state . . .” and reversed the trial court’s
judgment and ordered a new trial. “Before
a jury was impaneled and also at later stage of the case he (Palko) made the
objection that the effect of the new trial was to place him twice in jeopardy
for the same offense, and in so doing to violate the Fourteenth Amendment of
the Constitution of the United States.”
The presiding judge overruled a verdict of murder in the first degree,
and the court sentenced the defendant to the punishment of death; which the
Supreme Court of Errors upheld in 122 Conn. 529, 191 A 329. The case is here on appeal.
LEGAL
QUESTIONS:
The Court is presented, by the appellant, with three major contentions
which lead to three legal questions which are:
1. Does a
act of a state violate the Fourteenth Amendment if a similar act by the Federal
government would violate the original Bill of Rights (Amendments 1 to 8)?
2. Does
the Fifth Amendment, through the Fourteenth Amendment, apply to the states?
3. Does a
state statute allowing a state to initiate an appeal in a criminal case, on a
question of law, violate the Fourteenth Amendment?
HOLDINGS: In answering the three legal
questions, the Court failed to accept the appellant’s arguments and answered
the questions in the following manner:
1. Appellant’s thesis is; “Whatever would
be a violation of the original bill of rights (Amendments 1 to 8) if done by
the federal government is now equally unlawful by force of the Fourteenth
Amendment if done by the state. There
is no such general rule.”
2. The Court explicitly refuses to make the
Fifth Amendment applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment;
citing Hurtado v. California, 110 U.S. 516 (1884) and Twining v. New Jersey,
211 U.S. 78 (1908).
3. The Court directly answered the third
contention as follows: “1. The execution of the sentence will not
deprive appellant of his life without the process of law assured to him by the
Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution.”
MR. JUSTICE
CARDOZO’S OPINION: “The argument for appellant is that whatever
is forbidden by the Fifth Amendment is forbidden by the Fourteenth also.” The Fifth Amendment, which is only
applicable to the federal government, states in part; “ . . . nor shall any
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life of
limb. . .”. “The Fourteenth Amendment
ordains, ‘nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law.’ ” The
appellant contends that to retry him under a single indictment would subject
him to double jeopardy in a federal criminal proceeding. He further contends that it follows that for
the state to retry him in like circumstances would be “. . .a denial of life or
liberty without due process of law. . .” in violation of the Fourteenth
Amendment.
“We have said that in
appellant’s view the Fourteenth Amendment is to be taken as embodying the
prohibition of the Fifth. His thesis is
even broader. Whatever would be a
violation of the original bill of rights (Amendments 1 to 8) if done by the
federal government in now equally unlawful by force of the Fourteenth Amendment
if done by a state. There is no such general
rule.”
The pertinent portions of the
Fifth Amendment provide; “. . .that no person shall be held to answer for a
capital or otherwise infamous crime unless on presentment or indictment by a
grand jury. This court has held that,
in prosecutions by a state, presentment or indictment by a grand jury may give
way to information at the instance of a public officer [Hurtado v. California,
110 U.S. 516 (1884)].” The Fifth
Amendment also states that “. . .no person shall be compelled in any criminal
case to be a witness against himself.
This court has said that, in prosecutions by a state, the exemption will
fail if the state elects to end it [Twining v. New Jersey, 211 U.S. 78 (1919)].” “The Sixth Amendment calls for a jury trial
in criminal cases and the Seventh for a jury trial in civil cases at common law
where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars. This court has ruled that consistently with
those amendments trial by jury may be modified by a state or abolished
altogether [Walker v. Sauvinet, 92 U.S. (1876); Maxwell v. Dow, 176 U.S. 581
(1900)].” This court has ruled in a
like manner regarding the Fourth Amendment in Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S.
383 (1914); and regarding other provisions of the Sixth Amendment in West v.
Louisiana, 194 U.S. 258 (1904).
“On the other hand, the
due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment may make it unlawful for a state
to abridge by its statutes the freedom of speech which the First Amendment
safeguards against encroachment by the Congress [DeJonge v. Oregon, 299 U.S.
353 (1937)] or the like freedom of the press [Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697
(1931)], or right of peaceable assembly, without which speech would be unduly
trammeled [DeJonge v. Oregon, (1937)], or the right of one accused of crime to
the benefit of counsel [Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45 (1932)]. In these and other situations immunities
that are valid as against the federal government by force of the specific
pledges of particular amendments have been found to be implicit in the concept
of ordered liberty, and thus, through the Fourteenth Amendment, become valid as
against the state.”
This distinction may seem
unclear upon first examination, but careful analysis will serve to elucidate
the inherent difference. “There emerges
the perception of a rationalizing principle which gives to the discrete
instances a proper order and coherence.
The right to trial by jury and the immunity from prosecution except as
the result of an indictment may have value and importance. Even so, they are not of the very essence of
a scheme of ordered liberty. To abolish
them is not to violate a ‘principle of justice so rooted in the traditions and
conscience of our people as to be ranked as fundamental’.” It is possible to modify and, in some
instances, abolish these, and other similar, rights in civil and criminal
proceedings at the state level and not establish a miscarriage of justice. “The exclusion of these immunities and
privileges from the privileges and immunities protected against the action of
the states has not been arbitrary or casual. It has been dictated by a study and an
appreciation of the meaning, the essential implications, of liberty itself.”
“We reach a different
plane of social and moral values when we pass to the privileges and immunities
that have been taken over from the earlier articles of the federal Bill of
Rights and brought within the Fourteenth Amendment by a process of absorption.” “If the Fourteenth Amendment has absorbed
them, the process of absorption has had its source in the belief that neither
liberty nor justice would exist if they were sacrificed [Twining v. New Jersey
(1908)].” The freedoms of thought,
speech, press and assembly have been found to be so embedded in our political,
legal, and philosophical tradition as to be “absorbed” into the concept of
liberty as applied to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment.
“Fundamental too in the
concept of due process, and so in that of liberty, is the thought that
condemnation shall be rendered only after a trial.” The trial must be real in truth not just form and, through the
exercise of due process, should strive for justice. “For that reason, ignorant defendants were held to have been
condemned unlawfully when in truth, though not in form, they were refused the
aid of counsel [Powell v. Alabama (1932)].” “The decision turned upon the fact that in the particular
situation laid before us in the evidence the benefit of counsel was essential
to the substance of a hearing.”
This differentiation
between rights mandatory for liberty, which the states must respect, and rights
without which liberty and justice may remain intact is clear. The questions presented to the Court for
consideration by the appellant: “Is the
kind of double jeopardy to which the statute has subjected him a hardship so
acute and shocking that our polity will not endure it? Does it violate those ‘fundamental
principles of liberty and justice’ which lie at the base of all our civil and
political institutions?” The answer to
both questions must surely be “no”. The
statute “. . .asks no more than this, that the case against him shall be a
trial free from the corrosion of substantial legal error.” The accused enjoys the privilege of appeal
on the occasion of legal error; now the state, with the consent of the
presiding judge, also enjoys that privilege.
“There is here no seismic innovation.
The edifice of justice stands, in its symmetry, to many, greater than
before.”
“The judgment is affirmed”
MR JUSTICE
BUTLER DISSENTED WITHOUT OPINION.
EVALUATION
OF THE OPINION:
a)
The opinion is very systematic in
reaching it’s conclusion and goes to great lengths to justify the partial
incorporation of the original Bill of Rights (Amendments 1 to 8) in the
Fourteenth Amendment. The Court further
establishes a hierarchy of amendments based on their necessity in the
preservations of liberty; with the First Amendment privileges and immunities
being incorporated into the Fourteenth.
The Court acknowledges incorporation of various other provisions of the
Bill of Rights only in specific instances in which the basic concept of liberty
was being contested in “truth, though not in form.” It seems that the Court is consistent in it’s analysis and
treatment of the issues in this case.
b)
As far as I am able to determine,
the Court seems to address all the issues raised by the appellant. Then the opinion goes through a fairly
lengthy discussion of the history and reasoning behind the whole incorporation
process. I would say that the Court
went past simply meeting all the relevant issues and provided a historical
perspective to put an end to speculation concerning the seemingly random manner
in which incorporation was taking place.
The way in which this opinion examines the process of incorporation
would seem to make it important for scholars of constitutional law and the
Supreme Court.
c)
This opinion seems to fit in with the Court’s refusal to
incorporate provisions of the Bill of Rights establishing privileges and
immunities in civil and criminal trial proceedings. The only retreat from that refusal, that I am aware of, was in
the case of Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45 (1932); and the opinion does not
accept the view that the Sixth Amendment was incorporated in the Fourteenth
Amendment by that decision. Instead,
the opinion contends that in the narrow circumstances of that case, it was
necessary for Powell et. al. to have the benefit of effective counsel in order
to prevent an, unacceptable
infringement on the base of liberty. It
would seem that the Court intends to maintain a policy of close, case-by-case,
examination of incorporation of the Bill of Rights in matters other that the
First Amendment. I feel that the Court
has adequately distinguished this case from seemingly conflicting precedents.
d)
The opinion convincingly explains the reasoning behind the
Justices’ conclusion. Taken in
historical perspective, the opinion accurately summarizes the reasoning
responsible for both inclusion in and exclusion from incorporation in the
Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Butler,
in dissent, fails to offer an opinion and therefore, provides no reasoning to
support his position. Nor does he take
advantage of the opportunity to criticize the majority opinion. If the majority opinion failed to accurately
explain the intentions of the majority and Justice Butler dissented for that
reason; why did he fail to write out his reasons?
e)
The only possible hidden assumption
which I can ascertain is the Courts’ assigning a priority system to which of
the first ten amendments is more or less necessary to protect the liberty of
citizens. And therefore, based upon
this hierarchy, the Court may decide which amendment, or part of an amendment,
is important enough to warrant application to the states through the Fourteenth
Amendment.
f)
In considering the importance of this
opinion it is necessary to make note of the fact that it was overruled by Benton
v. Maryland, 395 U.S. 78 (1969). I
feel the importance of this opinion to be as a classic example of the feelings
of the Court towards preferred freedoms and the need to make those preferred
freedoms safe from restriction by state governments. As the interest in civil liberties grew, the Court responded by
expanding the extent to which the original Bill of Rights would be applied to
the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.
Description: In your
methods course you will be asked to develop a research project using the
scientific method.
Purpose: You will familiarize
yourself with scientific methods and the different steps involved.
How to Write It:
Eight
Steps in Writing a Research Paper for Research Methodology
The following steps will help you to
develop a research project using the scientific method:
Step 1: THEORY
Start with a general theoretical
framework (a general view of how the world works); a literature review with the
help of a reference librarian or a university researcher would be a useful
starting point. Remember that there are
a variety of perspectives for most research topics and that university
researchers often have strong preferences (biases) concerning the validity of
each perspective.
Be careful not to confuse normative
theory ("what should be") with empirical theory ("what
is").
Step 2:
HYPOTHESES
Based upon your particular world view
(theory), you next need to develop a set of hypotheses to guide your
research. Hypotheses are nothing more
than statements of relationships which are TESTABLE and FALSIFIABLE.
Hypotheses must specify a relationship
for at least two or more variables. A variable is a property of whatever it is
that we are studying. If we are
studying people, then people have properties like height, eye color, attitudes
toward their jobs, etc. These
properties VARY by each individual, and thus are variables.
Examples of variables could be: quality of housing options; types of
economic development programs; income levels; gender; occupations; health
insurance costs; level of pesticide use; citizen attitudes toward educational
policies; amount of government development aid; population; etc.
All hypotheses should have at least
one dependent variable (what is to be explained) and one independent variable
(what is used to explain variation in the dependent variable).
STEP 3: CONCEPTUALIZATION (Defining Your Variables)
When determining which hypotheses will
be the subject of your research, you need to define what your concepts i.e.,
(variables) mean. For example, if you
are interested in rural poverty, you need to define exactly what you mean (be
sure to include all relevant dimensions for each concept included in the
hypothesis). A definition of poverty
may include a specific income level, amount of wealth/property holdings,
employment status, etc. The concept of
job satisfaction may include employee morale, attitudes toward current jobs,
etc.
STEP 4: OPERATIONALIZATION (Specifying Indicators for
Variables)
After defining your variables above in
Step 3, you next need to determine what your actual indicators will be. How will you actually measure your concepts?
Often times this particular step will be dictated by the use of previously
collected data sets. If you are
designing your own survey, there are several things you should be concerned
about when designing indicators: (1) Be
sure to account for all possible response categories to a question; (2)
Response categories should be mutually exclusive – only one attribute applies;
(3) Use the appropriate level of measurement‑‑categorical,
ordinal/rank‑ordered responses, and interval/ratio.
STEP 5: CHOICE OF RESEARCH METHOD
This step will probably be decided
before this point, but here is a brief list of possibilities (not an exhaustive
list):
A.
Library Research – literature review for other studies in your
area of interest.
B.
Secondary Analysis of Existing Data Sets – analyze data collected
by someone else.
C.
Field Research – participant observation, informal interviews.
D.
Survey Research – telephone, mail, and personal interviews
(structured and quantifiable).
E.
Experiments – controlled environments.
F.
Historical Research – use of data archives to trace trends
over time.
G.
Evaluation Research – examine the impact of an existing policy to
see if the specific goals have been achieved, etc.
STEP 6: POPULATION AND SAMPLING
The next question to
consider is: "Who do we want to be
able to draw conclusions about? Who
will be observed for that purpose?"
Often it is impossible to study an entire population, therefore we
typically use samples that allow us to make conclusions about the general
population.
This can be a very complicated step
and will determine the level of confidence you can have in your research findings. It is highly advisable to get help from a
resource person (e.g., university researcher) when designing a sample. You must be concerned about such things as
sample size and how the sample is selected.
Attached you will find a general guide for determining sample size. Be careful of "samples of
convenience" or "supermarket" surveys (i.e., surveys of people
you know or an extremely biased survey).
STEP 7: OBSERVATIONS
This step concerns
the actual collection of data for analysis.
This could be the process of carrying out a survey, conducting
interviews, doing library research, observing certain behaviors in the field,
etc. There are certain
"rules" or "procedures" to follow when conducting
interviews, surveys and the like. A
poorly designed and implemented survey or interview will lead to poor results
and decrease the legitimacy of your research.
Design issues often take you back to
previous steps. Are you asking a
question that will get meaningful answers from your target population? Implementation
issues involve the training of staff and timing of the research process.
STEP 8: DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
Once you have collected your data,
they need to be transformed into a form appropriate for manipulation and
analysis. Increasingly this means the
use of computers. Data needs to be in a
format that can be read by any number of software packages. University researchers typically use SPSS or
SAS (both available for PCs), research firms use many other software packages.
Analysis techniques will depend on the
hypotheses you are testing. Sometimes
tables will work (using percentages).
However, multivariate techniques are required when you are asking which
of a dozen factors is most important in explaining some issue.
*The key to doing research
comes in steps 1‑3. If you know
what the issue is and can define the important/relevant variables, this will
guide you through subsequent steps.
Evaluation Criteria:
1. COMMITMENT – Did you cover all relevant
materials/questions?
2. AMBITION –
Did you take each issue to task?
3. ENGAGEMENT –
Did you make connections between issues?
4. CLARITY –
Was the paper readable and well organized?
5. READINGS/COURSE
MATERIALS – Did you use appropriate reading and other course materials in
your work? [Note: cite everything appropriately.]
6. COMPARISON –
In general, how did your work compare to the rest of the class?
7. DIRECTIONS –
A "no brainer" here. Did you
follow directions?
In various classes and class levels you
might be asked to produce a research paper.
This might be a paper exploring a topic of your own choosing (related to
the issues of the course) or your professor might offer a list of possible
topics.
The research paper could be descriptive,
for example a case study of a political system of a foreign country for an
introductory comparative class. But
most research papers are analytical in which you are developing a research
question or set of questions to guide your inquiry.
Purpose: To develop a topic
and present it in a comprehensive manner.
How to Write It: For a
specific research paper you need to follow the guidelines set out by your
professor. Here are some general hints
and recommendations for successfully negotiating the demands of a research
paper:
·
Give yourself plenty of time between
designing the topic and the deadline for the polished draft.
·
Develop your topic from questions that
interest you - you will have to spend considerable time dealing with the topic
you end up choosing.
·
Work on your research skills - ask for
help if you are not sure what, where, and how.
·
Work through this assignment with the
various steps in mind:
·
Asking questions - developing topic -
developing outline - surveying
·
literature - reevaluate topic and
outline - consulting with your
·
professor - first draft - revisions -
cleaning up the final draft.
·
Keep in contact with your professor
throughout the process (some will require that you turn in topic, literature
review, outline of paper, drafts).
·
Use your colleagues in class or friends
as peer reviewer.
·
Make sure you reference whenever you use
other author’s ideas, concepts, or
quotes.
Evaluation Criteria:
1. Well developed
topic.
2. Well researched -
good use of sources.
3. Well referenced.
4. Well structured
and well written.
“She said, he said…”
How to Deal with Gender and Language
There has been plenty of
discussion on the use of non-sexist language in academic writing. We inherited a language that developed in
times of traditional societal roles for men and women and now use this language
during a time and in a societal context in which we are changing and
re-evaluating issues of gender, power, roles in society and relationships. Therefore,
we are bound to struggle with the language when making an effort to reflect
these changes.
There are different ways of grappling with this problem:
1. One solution has been to continue using ‘man’, ‘he’, ‘his’, etc. and to explain that this use is meant to be a generic one. However, it has been argued that this is an inadequate solution because, while it may well intended by the author, it does not constitute inclusive language. (see, Department of Philosophy, Oregon State University, Writing Philosophy Papers, p. 17)
2.
Another proposed solution has been that
male writers use male signifiers, female writers use female signifiers. However, the same criticism as above
applies. It is not inclusive language.
3.
One other possibility is to randomly
change gender in pronouns in the text, while of course staying consistent
within a sentence. This can be an
interesting challenge for readers when the text confronts them with gender
signifiers they might not have expected in a given context. However, sometimes this continuous change
might be distracting from the subject matter of the text.
4.
Another solution is therefore to avoid
exclusive language by using the following guidelines.
Summary of Guidelines for the Nonsexist Use
of Language
When constructing examples and theories,
remember to include those human activities, interests, and points of view which
traditionally have been associated with females.
Eliminate the generic use of ‘he’ by:
·
Using plural nouns.
·
Deleting ‘he’, ‘his’, and ‘him’
altogether.
·
Substituting articles (‘the’, ‘a’, ‘an’)
for ‘his’; and ‘who’ for ‘he’.
·
Substituting ‘one’, ‘we’, or ‘you’.
·
Minimizing use of indefinite pronouns
(e.g., ‘everybody’, ‘someone’).
·
Using the passive voice (use sparingly).
·
Substituting nouns for pronouns (use
sparingly).
Eliminate the generic use of ‘man’:
·
For ‘man’, substitute ‘person’/‘people,’
‘individual(s)’, ‘human being(s)’.
·
For ‘mankind’, substitute ‘humankind’, ‘humanity’,
‘the human race’.
·
For ‘manhood’, substitute ‘adulthood’, ‘maturity’.
·
Delete unnecessary references to generic
‘man’.
Eliminate sexism when addressing a
person formally by:
· Using ‘Ms.’ instead of ‘Miss’ or ‘Mrs.’, even when a woman’s marital status is known.
·
Using a married woman’s first name
instead of her husband’s (e.g., “Ms. Annabelle Lee” not “Mrs. Herman Lee”).
·
Using the corresponding title for
females (‘Ms.’, ‘Dr.’, ‘Prof.’) whenever a title is appropriate for males.
·
Using ‘Dear Colleague’ or ‘Editor’ or ‘Professor’,
etc., in letters to unknown persons (instead of ‘Dear Sir’, ‘Gentlemen’).
Eliminate sexual stereotyping of roles
by:
·
Using the same term (which avoids the generic ‘man’) for both females and
males (e.g., ‘department chair’ or ‘chairperson’) or by using the corresponding
verb (e.g., ‘to chair’).
·
Not calling attention to irrelevancies
(e.g., ‘lady lawyer,’ ‘male nurse’).
Importance of Documentation
Academic writing is like engaging in a
conversation with other writers. It is
therefore important that you identify who is part of the conversation and what
contributions they made. Therefore you
need to give some thought to:
Academic
Honesty in Writing:
1. Why is it
important to be diligent about documentation?
·
As a student you are training to be a
professional in your field – therefore it is important that you train yourself
in professional conduct as well. In the
case of writing in the discipline of Political Science, this translates into
being very diligent in documenting your sources.
·
By identifying your sources (every
time you use them!) you clarify who are the participants in the conversation in
which you are partaking and what their contributions to the discussion are.
·
Readers need to be able to retrace the
steps of your writing process and to verify your sources and the contents.
2. What constitutes
academic dishonesty?
“Academic dishonesty is defined as: an intentional act of deception in which a
student seeks to claim credit for the work or effort of another person or uses
unauthorized materials or fabricated information in any academic work. …”
(http://osu.orst.edu/admin/stucon/achon.htm, p.1)
In order to know what you should avoid, you ought to familiarize yourself with the different forms of academic dishonesty and the consequences that you can expect if you engage in this behavior.
For writers the most common form of
academic dishonesty is plagiarism. Plagiarism is defined as “representing
the words or ideas of another person as one’s own OR presenting someone else’s
words, ideas, artistry or data as one’s own.
This includes copying another person’s work (including unpublished
material) without appropriate referencing, presenting someone else’s opinions
and theories as one’s own, or working jointly on a project, then submitting it
as one’s own.” (ibid., p. 2)
Plagiarism is committed when a writer
uses another author’s words or ideas without crediting the source. Keep in mind therefore that you need to
reference it any time you quote directly from another text and when you
paraphrase another author’s ideas.
Basic information that is generally available does not need to be
referenced, but an author’s interpretation of some general information will
need to be credited.
In order to learn about acceptable
versus unacceptable ways of using somebody else’s work please review: http://osu.orst.edu/admin/stucon/plag.htm
3. Why do students
plagiarize?
Students tend to
plagiarize because they:
·
Didn’t leave enough time to write (i.e.
did not go through the writing process for) their assignment – the night
before the assignment is due they then throw wildly different sources together
thinking it will amount to a paper.
·
Don’t trust their own thinking (“I have
nothing to contribute to this topic”).
·
Want to “sound good” in their paper but
don’t want to put the time in to polish it.
·
Didn’t engage actively with the
material; therefore go for a “good sound” over substance.
4. How to avoid plagiarism – Solutions:
· Take pride in your work - take a professional attitude, even as a student (right now your profession is to be a student).
·
Leave yourself enough time to develop
your writing assignment (if you are always overwhelmed with too much work it
might be time to reevaluate your overall course- and workload).
·
You don’t have to reinvent the wheel or
demonstrate absolute brilliance – you
only need to have a grasp of the subject matter and practice thinking in a
disciplined manner. Therefore, trust
your own thinking!
·
Go for substance in your papers, not for
convoluted verbosity.
·
Integrate your writing process into your
general conduct as a participant in a class:
a. Show up to
class - take effective notes.
b. Read assigned
readings - take useful notes.
c. Participate
in class discussions.
d. Discuss the
subject matter with friends - engage your mind.
When you follow this advice, your
writing assignment is just a continuation of your learning process.
Conventions for Documentation:
There are different styles available for
use in your writing. It is important
that you stay consistent within each assignment. You will need to clarify with your instructor what style she
expects as documentation.
Commonly used styles are:
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research
Papers. 2nd ed., New
York: Modern Language Association of
America, 1984.
Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations. 6th
ed., rev. by John Grossman and Alice Bennett, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
University of Chicago Press. The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
The traditional style manuals do not yet address how to cite sources from
the internet. In the following pages
you will be provided with a citation guide for internet sources.
CITATION GUIDE FOR INTERNET SOURCES IN HISTORY
AND THE HUMANITIES
by
Melvin
E. Page
<pagem@etsuarts.east-tenn-st.edu>
for
H-Africa
<h-africa@msu.edu>
and
History
Department, East Tennessee State University
Bibliographic
Citations
Basic Citation Components and Punctuation:
Author’s Last Name, First Name. [author’s internet address, if available]. “Title of Work” or “title line of message.” In “Title of Complete Work” or title of
list/site as appropriate. [internet
address]. Date, if available.
The samples below indicate how citations
of particular electronic sources might be made.
Listserv Messages: Walsh, Gretchen.
[gwalsh@acs.bu.edu]. “REPLY: Using African newspapers in teaching.” In H-AFRICA.
[h-africa@msu.edu]. 18 October 1995.
World Wide Web: Limb, Peter.
“Relationships between Labour & African Nationalist/Liberation
Movements in Southern Africa.”
[http://neal.ctstateu.edu/history/world_history/archives/limb-l.html]. May 1992
FTP Site: Heinrich, Gregor.
[100303.100@compuserve.com]. “Where
There Is Beauty, There is Hope: Sau
Tome e Principe.”
[ftp.cs.ubc.ca/pub/local/FAQ/african/gen/saoep.txt]. July 1994.
Gopher Site: “Democratic Party Platform, 1860.” [wiretap.spies.com Wiretap Online
Library/civic & Historical/Political Platforms of the U.S.]. 18 June 1860.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. “Making Difference.” [gopher.uic.edu The
Researcher/history/H-Net/H-Amstdy (American Studies)/Essays & Discussions
About American Studies]. 20 July 1995.
Usenet Group Messages: Dell, Thomas. [dell@wiretap.spies.com]. “[EDTECH]
EMG: Sacred Texts (Networked
Electronic Versions).” In
[alt.etext]. 4 February 1993.
Legg, Sonya. [legg@harquebus.cgd.ucar.edu].
“African history book list.” In
[soc.culture.african]. 5 September
1994.
E-mail Messages: Page, Mel.
[pagem@etsuarts.east-tenn-st.edu].
“African dance…and Malawi.” Private e-mail message to Masankho Banda,
[mbanda@igc.apc.org]. 28 November 1994.
Footnote
and Endnote Citations
Basic Citation Components and Punctuation:
<note number> Author’s First name and
Last name, [author’s internet address, if available], “Title of Work” or “title
line of message,” in “Title of Compete Work” or title of list/site as
appropriate, [internet address], date if available.
The examples below indicate how
citations of particular electronic sources might be made.
Listserv Messages: <1> Gretchen Walsh,
[gwalsh@acs.bu.edu], “REPLY: Using African newspapers in teaching,” in
H-AFRICA,
[h-africa@msu.edu], 18 October 1995.
World Wide Web: <2>
Peter Limb, “Relationships between Labour & African
Nationalist/Liberation Movements in Southern Africa,”
[http://neal.ctstateu.edu/history/world_history/archives/limb-l.html],
May 1992.
FTP Site: <3> Gregor Heinrich,
[100303.100@compuserve.com]. “Where
There Is Beauty, There is Hope: Sau
Tome e Principe,”
[ftp.cs.ubc.ca/pub/local/FAQ/african/gen/saoep.txt], July 1994.
<4> Sonya Legg, [legg@harquebus.cgd.ucar.edu], “African history book
list,” in [soc.culture.african], 5 September 1994.
Gopher Site: <5>
“Democratic Party Platform, 1860,”
[wiretap.spies.com Wiretap Online Library/civic &
Historical/Political Platforms of the U.S.], 18 June 1860.
<6> Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Making Difference,”
[gopher.uic.edu The Researcher/history/H-Net/H-Amstdy (American Studies)/Essays
& Discussions About American Studies], 20 July 1995.
Usenet Group Messages: <7> Thomas Dell, [dell@wiretap.spies.com], “[EDTECH] EMG:
Sacred Texts (Networked Electronic Versions),” in [alt.etext], 4
February 1993.
E-mail Messages: <8>
Mel Page, [pagem@etsuarts.east-tenn-st.edu], “African dance…and Malawi,”
private e-mail message to Masankho Banda, [mbanda@igc.apc.org], 28 November
1994.
Useful
Sites for Websearch:
Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com
Inference http://www.infind.com
Altavista http://www.altavista.com
Libraries:
OSU Libraries http://www.orst.edu/mc/libcom/
libcom.htm
Library WWW Servers http://sunsite.Berkeley.EDU/Libweb/
US Politics:
Project Vote Smart http://www.vote-smart.org
The White House http://www.whitehouse.gov
Congress http://www.Congress.gov
The House of Representatives http://www.house.gov
The Senate http://www.senate.gov
US State Department http://www.state.gov/index.html
CIA via Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com/Regional/
CIA_World_Factbook/
Asian
Politics:
Libraries in China http://www.online.anu.edu.au/Asia/Chi/ChiLib.html
South China Morning Post http://www.semp.com/news/index.idc
Asian Doc Electronic Newsletter http://asiandoc.lib.ohio-state.edu/v1in1/
East Asian Language and Thought http://www.acmuller.gol.com/index.html
China’s Environment http://environment.harvard.edu
ChinaLaw Web http://www.qis.net/chinalaw/
Network Pacific Asia http://law.rikkyo.ac.jp/npa/indx.htm
Paths to other sites http://www.agora.stm.it/politic/china.htm
British
Politics:
Labour Party http://www.labour.org.uk/core.html
British Publications http://www.FT.com
British Political Science Association http://www.lgu.ac.uk/psa/psa.html
Russian and
East European Politics:
Russian and East European http://www.pitt.edu/~cjp/rspubl.html
Misc. Russia Information http://www.seanet.com/RussianPage/
Russian Sites.html
RIA - Novosti http://www.russia.net
Russia News from English papers http://www.nd.edu:80/~astrouni/zhiwriter
Russia News papers http://www.russianstory.com
Johnson’s Russia List http://www.edi.org/mailing/russia
Other
Topics and Useful Links:
Links to law and trade http://202.96.21/241/onnete.htm
Security, Environment, Sustainability http://www.nautilus.org
History Departments Directory http://chnm.gmu.edu/history/depts/
Country Studies and Area Handbooks http://www.yahoo.com/Regional
Links to Countries and Cities http://www.city.net/countries/
Gateway to Media News http://www.dds.nl/~kidon/
papers.html
Bucknell University http://www.bucknell.edu/
departments/russian/sites.html
University of Washington http://weber.u.washington.edu/
~reecasf
University of Michigan http://www.umich.edu/~linet/crees
Books:
Adler, Mortimer J. and Charles Van
Doren. How to Read a Book. Rev. ed., Simon & Schuster, 1967. (Everybody who reads will benefit from
reading this book.)
Biddle, Arthur W. and Kenneth M.
Holland. Writer’s Guide - Political
Science. D.C. Heath and Company,
1987. (Contains more types of
assignments, good discussion of reading and writing.)
Cuba, Lee. A Short Guide to Writing About Social Science. 2nd ed., Harper Collins,
1993. (Contains extensive discussion on
library research.)
Elbow, Peter. Writing with Power - Techniques for Mastering the Writing
Process. Oxford University Press,
1981.
Hacker, Diana. A Writer’s Reference.
3rd ed., Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1995. (A useful resource for all aspects of
writing; organized in a very accessible format.)
Strunk, William Jr. and E. B.
White. The Elements of Style. Macmillan, New York, newest ed. (It’s a classic.)
Oregon State University
Taken from Foster, James C., Review of: Neubauer, David W., Judicial Process: Law, Courts, & Politics in the United
States, Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole, 1991. In: THE LAW AND POLITICS BOOK REVIEW, an
electronic periodical published by The Law and Courts Section, APSA, Vol. 5,
No. 3 (March, 1995), pp. 79-80.